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Discover how the Haversine formula, rooted in centuries of navigation history, computes the shortest great‑circle distance between any two points on Earth, illustrated with Python code that measures distances and flight times among Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen.
This article explains the fundamentals of geodetic and Earth‑centered coordinate systems, their mathematical relationships, and how to convert between geodetic latitude/longitude/height, ECEF, ENU, and Web Mercator coordinates, providing detailed derivations, diagrams, and a C++ implementation example.
The article explains high‑precision mapping fundamentals, from Earth’s ellipsoid and geoid definitions and common datums to 2‑D map projections, then details vehicle‑centred and sensor coordinate frames (ECEF, ENU, body, LiDAR, IMU, camera), their transformations, rotation representations, and key standards such as EPSG and Proj.4.